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<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<meta charset='utf-8' >
<title>Lexicon Model for Ontologies: Community Report, 10 May 2016</title>
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<section id="abstract">
<p>
This document describes the lexicon model for ontologies (<i>lemon</i>) as a main outcome of the work of the Ontology Lexicon (Ontolex) community group. </p>
<p>Ontologies are an important component of the Semantic Web but current ontology languages such as OWL and RDF(S) lack support for enriching ontologies with linguistic information, in particular with information concerning how ontology entities, i.e. properties, classes, individuals, etc. can be realized in natural language. The model described in this document aims to close this gap by providing a vocabulary that allows ontologies to be enriched with information about how the vocabulary elements described in them are realized linguistically, in particular in natural languages.</p>
<p>OWL and RDF(S) rely on the RDFS lable property to capture the relation between a vocabulary element and its (preferred) lexicalization in a given language. This lexicalization provides a lexical anchor that makes the class, property, individual etc. understandable to a human user. The use of a simple label for linguistic grounding as available in OWL and RDF(S) is far from being able to capture the necessary linguistic and lexical information that Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications working with a particular ontology need.</p>
<p>The aim of <i>lemon</i> is to provide rich linguistic grounding for ontologies. Rich linguistic grounding includes the representation of morphological and syntactic properties of lexical entries as well as the syntax-semantics interface, i.e. the meaning of these lexical entries with respect to an ontology or vocabulary.
</p>
</section>
<section id='sotd'>
<p><em>This specification was published by the <a href="http://www.w3.org/community/ontolex/">OntoLex Community Group</a>. It is not a W3C Standard nor is it on the W3C Standards Track. Please note that under the <a href="http://www.w3.org/community/about/agreements/cla/">W3C Community Contributor License Agreement (CLA)</a> there is a limited opt-out and other conditions apply. Learn more about <a href="http://www.w3.org/community/">W3C Community and Business Groups</a>.</em></p>
<p>This document is the first official report of the OntoLex community group. It does not represent the view of single individuals but reflects the consensus and agreement reach as part of the regular group discussions. The report should be regarded as the official specification of <i>lemon</i>.</p>
</section>
<section><h2>Overview</h2>
<p>This document describes the specification of the <em>lexicon model for ontologies</em> (<i>lemon</i>) as resulting from the work of the W3C Ontology Lexicon Community Group.</p>
<p>The aim of the <em>lexicon model for ontologies</em> (<i>lemon</i>) is to provide rich linguistic grounding for ontologies. Rich linguistic grounding includes the representation of morphological and syntactic properties of lexical entries as well as the syntax-semantics interface, i.e. the meaning of these lexical entries with respect to an ontology or vocabulary.</p>
<p>This document is structured into nine sections, where the first five correspond to the main modules of <i>lemon</i>. Depending on their needs and requirements, applications will use one or more of the modules mentioned below, with the use of the OntoLex module being the minimal choice.</p>
<ul>
<li>Ontology-lexicon interface (ontolex)</li>
<li>Syntax and Semantics (synsem)</li>
<li>Decomposition (decomp)</li>
<li>Variation and Translation (vartrans)</li>
<li>Linguistic Metadata (lime)</li>
</ul>
<p>The last three sections do not describe the formal modelling but clarify</p>
<ul>
<li>how one can add linguistic levels of description by means of external ontologies (section Linguistic Description)</li>
<li>how one can use <i>lemon</i> to describe lexical nets and other linguistic resources (section Lexical Nets)</li>
<li>the relation between <i>lemon</i> and the Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS), the Lexical Markup Model (LMF), and the Open Annotation Model (section Relation to Other Models)</li>
</ul>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="introduction">Introduction</h2>
<p>Ontologies are an important component of the Semantic Web but current standards such as <a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/owl-features/">OWL</a> only support the addition of a simple label to entities in the ontology. It is not currently possible to add inflected forms, different genders, usage notes or create a full lexical resource such as Princeton WordNet. The model described in this document aims to close this gap by providing a vocabulary that allows ontologies to be enriched with information about how the vocabulary elements described in them are realized linguistically, in particular in natural languages, in order to render ontologies suitable for supporting meaningful interaction with and manipulation of them by human users and allowing NLP tools to be able work with ontologies.</p>
<p>OWL and RDF(S) rely on a property <code class="cm">rdfs:label</code> to capture the relation between a vocabulary element and its (preferred) lexicalization in a given language. This lexicalization provides a lexical anchor that makes the concept, property, individual etc. understandable to a human user. The use of a simple label for linguistic grounding as available in OWL and RDF(S) is far from being able to capture the necessary linguistic and lexical information that Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications working with a particular ontology need. Such NLP applications are for example:</p>
<ul>
<li>Natural language generation systems that produce coherent discourses by verbalizing a set of triples</li>
<li>Question Answering systems that interpret user questions with respect to one or more ontologies</li>
<li>Text interpretation systems that extract triples with respect to one or more ontologies</li>
<li>Query interpretation and semantic search in information retrieval systems</li>
<li>Natural language based interfaces to ontologies, Semantic Web and Linked Data.</li>
</ul>
<section>
<h2 id="purpose-of-the-model">Purpose of the model</h2>
<p>The purpose of the model is to support linguistic grounding of a given ontology by adding information about how the elements in the vocabulary of the ontology (individuals, classes, properties) are lexicalized in a given natural language.</p>
<p>The model follows the principle of <em>semantics by reference</em> [<a href="http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10579-012-9182-3/fulltext.html">1</a>] in the sense that the semantics of a <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">lexical entry</a> is expressed by reference to an individual, class or property defined in the ontology. In some cases, the lexicon itself can add named concepts which are not made explicit in the ontology.</p>
<p>The model described here is open in the sense that it provides a core vocabulary to add information about the linguistic realization of ontology and vocabulary elements. This vocabulary can and should be extended as required by a particular application. In particular, the model abstracts from specific linguistic theory or category systems used to describe the linguistic properties of lexical entries and their syntactic behavior, encouraging reuse of existing data category systems or linguistic ontologies. The model is thus agnostic with respect to the linguistic theory and category systems. We make explicit in this document at which points we refer to an external repository of data categories or introduce novel sub-properties of properties defined in <i>lemon</i>.</p>
<p>The model as presented here is inspired by many other models, in particular the <a href="http://www.lexicalmarkupframework.org">Lexical Markup Framework</a> (LMF), the <a href="http://www.lexinfo.net/">LexInfo</a> model, the <a href="http://mayor2.dia.fi.upm.es/oeg-upm/index.php/en/technologies/63-lir">LIR</a> model, the <a href="http://ontologydesignpatterns.org/wiki/Ontology:LMM">Linguistic Meta Model</a> (LMM), the <a href="http://www.ontologydesignpatterns.org/cp/owl/semiotics.owl">semiotics.owl</a> ontology design pattern, and the <a href="http://www.sensocomune.it">Senso Comune</a> core model.</p>
<p>It is important to also mention what is not the purpose of the model:</p>
<ul>
<li>It is not the goal of the model to replace any existing W3C Standard or Recommendation. In particular, this model is not intended to represent informal schemas such as taxonomies, thesauri and other classification schemes. This is covered by the <a href="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/">SKOS</a> model.</li>
<li>It is not a vocabulary for annotation of texts. If you need to add annotations to textual data, then please consider using the <a href="http://www.openannotation.org/spec/core/">Open Annotation</a>, <a href="http://persistence.uni-leipzig.org/nlp2rdf/ontologies/nif-core/nif-core.html">NLP Interchange Format (NIF)</a> or the <a href="http://www.essepuntato.it/lode/owlapi/http://www.essepuntato.it/2008/12/earmark">Extremely Annotational RDF Markup (Earmark)</a>.</li>
<li>It is not a formal model of semantics but a model of lexicography. The model is not supposed to be used to define an ontology and instead assumes that there is a given ontology in some ontology language that is to be linked to a lexicon that expresses how the classes, properties and individuals defined in the ontology are lexicalized.</li>
<li>It does not contain a complete collection of linguistic categories. There are many existing efforts to provide a vocabulary to describe the properties of linguistic objects, such as <a href="http://www.isocat.org">ISOcat</a>, <a href="https://openskos.meertens.knaw.nl/ccr/browser/">the CLARIN concept registry</a>, <a href="http://purl.org/olia/">OLiA</a>, <a href="http://linguistics-ontology.org/">GOLD</a>, <a href="http://www.lexinfo.net">LexInfo</a>. The model builds on those and does not introduce any vocabulary of linguistic description.</li>
<li>The lexicon model for ontologies is a model for describing lexical resources in connection to ontologies, it is not a generic vocabulary supporting the publication of any sort of linguistic data including typological data, corpora, word lists etc. See the activities of the <a href="http://linguistics.okfn.org/">Open Linguistics Working Group</a> for more information here.</li>
</ul></section>
<section>
<h2 id="namespaces">Namespaces</h2>
<p>The model is available with the following sub-namespaces for the various modules of the overall model:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex</a>#</li>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem</a>#</li>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/decomp" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/decomp</a>#</li>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/vartrans" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/vartrans</a>#</li>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/lime" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/lime</a>#</li>
</ul>
<p>All modules may be imported from the following URL:</p>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/all" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/all</a></li>
</ul></section>
<section>
<h2 id="conventions-in-this-document">Conventions in this document</h2>
<p>Throughout this document, we will use <a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/turtle/">Turtle RDF Syntax</a> to provide examples showing the use of the model. Axioms will be paraphrased in natural language. We will assume the following namespaces throughout all the examples in this document:</p>
<pre><code class="cm">@prefix ontolex: <http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#> .
@prefix synsem: <http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#> .
@prefix decomp: <http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/decomp#> .
@prefix vartrans: <http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/vartrans#> .
@prefix lime: <http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/lime#> .</code></pre>
<p>As we frequently also refer to other models, we will also assume the following namespaces in all examples:</p>
<pre><code class="cm">@prefix rdf: <http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#>.
@prefix owl: <http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#>.
@prefix xsd: <http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#>.
@prefix skos: <http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos#>.
@prefix dbr: <http://dbpedia.org/resource/>.
@prefix dbo: <http://dbpedia.org/ontology/>.
@prefix void: <http://rdfs.org/ns/void#>.
@prefix lexinfo: <http://www.lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo#>.
@prefix semiotics: <http://www.ontologydesignpatterns.org/cp/owl/semiotics.owl#>.
@prefix oils: <http://lemon-model.net/oils#>.
@prefix dct: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/>.
@prefix provo: <http://www.w3.org/ns/prov#>.</code></pre>
<p>Furthermore, we require that instances of the model adhere to the <a href="http://www.w3.org/TR/rdf11-concepts/">RDF 1.1 specification</a> and follow the appropriate guidelines. In particular, we require that language tags adhere to <a href="http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/bcp/bcp47.txt">Best Common Practice 47</a>, where tags are made up of a language code (based on <a href="http://www.iso.org/iso/home/standards/language_codes.htm">ISO 639 codes part 1, 2, 3 or 5</a>), optionally followed by a hyphen and a <a href="http://www.iso.org/iso/iso-3166-1_decoding_table.html">ISO 3166-1</a> country code. Language tags may also contain further <a href="https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry">subtags</a> expressing e.g. the region, script or further variants.</p>
<p>In all examples in this document, the above namespaces are introduced using an appropriate <code class="cm">@prefix</code> statement. Prefixes are omitted from class and object property definitions if the referenced ontology element is defined in the same module. For cross-module and external references, the prefix is made explicit.</p>
<p>In many examples we will use the <a href="http://www.lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo#">LexInfo</a> ontology to describe grammatical categories, although this is not required for using this model. The LexInfo model and guidelines for constructing and extending linguistic category schemes are provided in the section on <a href="#linguistic-description">linguistic description</a>.</p>
</section>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="core">Core</h2>
<p>The following diagram depicts the core model (ontolex). Boxes represent classes of the model. Arrows with filled heads represent object properties, while arrows with empty heads represent subclass relations. In arrows labeled 'X/Y' (e.g. <em>sense/isSenseOf</em>), X (<em>sense</em>) is the name of the object property and Y (<em>isSenseOf</em>) the name of the inverse property.</p>
<figure>
<img src="Lemon_OntoLex_Core.png" title="Lemon_OntoLex_Core.png" alt="Lemon_OntoLex_Core.png" ><figcaption>Lemon_OntoLex_Core.png</figcaption>
</figure>
<section>
<h2 id="lexical-entries">Lexical Entries</h2>
<p>The main class of the core of the lexicon ontology model is the class <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">Lexical Entry</a>. A lexical entry is defined as follows:</p>
<div id="LexicalEntry" class='entity'>
<h3>Lexical Entry (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#LexicalEntry" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#LexicalEntry</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>lexical entry</strong> represents a unit of analysis of the lexicon that consists of a set of forms that are grammatically related and a set of base meanings that are associated with all of these forms. Thus, a lexical entry is a word, multiword expression or affix with a single part-of-speech, morphological pattern, etymology and set of senses.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf:</strong> lexicalForm min 1 Form, canonicalForm max 1 Form, semiotics:Expression</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>A Lexical Entry thus needs to be associated with at least one <a href="#Form" title="wikilink">form</a>, and has at most one <a href="#canonicalForm" title="wikilink">canonical form</a> (see below).</p>
<p>Lexical entries are further specialized into <a href="#Word" title="wikilink">words</a>, <a href="#Affix" title="wikilink">affixes</a> (e.g., suffix, prefix, infix or circumfix) and <a href="#MultiwordExpression" title="wikilink">multiword expressions</a>.</p>
<div id="Word" class='entity'>
<h3>Word (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#Word" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#Word</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>word</strong> is a lexical entry that consists of a single token.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="MultiwordExpression" class='entity'>
<h3>Multiword Expression (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#MultiwordExpression" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#MultiwordExpression</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>multiword expression</strong> is a lexical entry that consists of two or more words.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="Affix" class='entity'>
<h3>Affix (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#Affix" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#Affix</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>An <strong>affix</strong> is a lexical entry that represents a morpheme (suffix, prefix, infix, circumfix) that is attached to a word stem to form a new word.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The following Turtle code gives examples of lexical entries for each of these subclasses, corresponding to the word <em>cat</em>, the multiword expression <em>minimum finance lease payments</em> and the affix <em>anti</em>:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example1.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example1.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:cat a ontolex:Word
:minimum_finance_lease_payments a ontolex:MultiwordExpression
:anti- a ontolex:Affix</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="forms">Forms</h2>
<p>A <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">lexical entry</a> can be realized in different ways from a grammatical point of view. These different grammatical realizations are represented as different <a href="#Form" title="wikilink">forms</a> of the lexical entry. A <a href="#Form" title="wikilink">form</a> is defined as follows:</p>
<div id="Form" class='entity'>
<h3>Form (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#Form" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#Form</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>form</strong> represents one grammatical realization of a lexical entry.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubclassOf</strong>: writtenRep min 1 rdf:langString</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>A lexical entry can be associated to one of its forms by means of the <a href="#lexicalForm" title="wikilink">lexicalForm</a> property, although it is preferred to use one of the two subproperties (canonical form, other form) defined below.</p>
<div id="lexicalForm" class='entity'>
<h3>Lexical Form (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#lexicalForm" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#lexicalForm</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>lexical form</strong> property relates a lexical entry to one grammatical form variant of the lexical entry.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> Form</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>Each form can thus have one or more <a href="#writtenRep" title="wikilink">written representations</a>, defined as follows:</p>
<div id="writtenRep" class='entity'>
<h3>Written Representation (Datatype Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#writtenRep" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#writtenRep</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>written representation</strong> property indicates the written representation of a form.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> Form</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> rdf:langString</p>
<p><strong>SubPropertyOf:</strong> representation</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>A simple example of a lexical entry with two different forms corresponding to two different grammatical realizations (as singular and plural noun, respectively) is given below:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example2.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example2.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_child a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:lexicalForm :form_child_singular, :form_child_plural .
:form_child_singular a ontolex:Form ;
ontolex:writtenRep "child"@en .
:form_child_plural a ontolex:Form ;
ontolex:writtenRep "children"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Different forms are used to express different morphological forms of the entry. They should not be used to represent ortographical variants, which should be represented as different representations of the same form. For example, for the lexical entry <em>color</em>, we would have two different representations of the same form, one for the British English written representation <em>colour</em> and one for the American English written representation <em>color</em>. Both representations have the same pronunciation and the same meaning, so they are two different lexicographic variants of the same lexical entry:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example3.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example3.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_color a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex:lexicalForm :form_color.
:form_color a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "colour"@en-GB, "color"@en-US.</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>A form may also have a phonetic representation, indicating the pronunciation of the word.</p>
<div id="phoneticRep" class='entity'>
<h3>Phonetic Representation (Datatype Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#phoneticRep" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#phoneticRep</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>phonetic representation</strong> property indicates one phonetic representation of the pronunciation of the form using a scheme such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> Form</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> rdf:langString</p>
<p><strong>SubPropertyOf:</strong> representation</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The following example shows how we can represent two different pronunciations for one form of a lexical entry using the example of "privacy" (the phonetic code is based on IPA):</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example4.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example4.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_privacy a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex:lexicalForm :form_privacy.
:form_privacy a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "privacy"@en;
ontolex:phoneticRep "ˈpɹɪv.ə.si"@en-US-fonipa;
ontolex:phoneticRep "ˈpɹaɪ.və.si"@en-GB-fonipa.</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Phonetic representation and written representation are both considered to be sub-properties of a more general property <a href="#representation" title="wikilink">representation</a>, for which users may define extra sub-properties as required.</p>
<div id="representation" class='entity'>
<h3>Representation (Datatype Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#representation" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#representation</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>representation</strong> property indicates a string by which the form is represented according to some scheme.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> Form</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> rdf:langString</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>A lexical entry has a canonical form, which is the form that primarily identifies this entry and may be used as an index term in the lexicon. The canonical form for single words is typically the lemma of that word and is determined by lexicographic conventions for that language. In the case of verbs, the lemma is typically the infinitive form or, alternatively, the present tense of the verb (note that if an external particle is used to indicate the infinitive as in English "to play", this particle should be omitted). For nouns it is the noun singular form, while for adjectives it is the positive (i.e., non-negative, non-graded) form. For multiword entries it is assumed that the same principles of lemmatization are applied to the head word.</p>
<p>The property <a href="#canonicalForm" title="wikilink">canonical form</a> has a <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">LexicalEntry</a> as domain and a <a href="#Form" title="wikilink">Form</a> as range. It is a subproperty of the property <a href="#lexicalForm" title="wikilink">lexicalForm</a>. The canonical form has to be unique, so that the property canonical form is declared to be functional:</p>
<div id="canonicalForm" class='entity'>
<h3>Canonical Form (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#canonicalForm" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#canonicalForm</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>canonical form</strong> property relates a lexical entry to its canonical or dictionary form. This usually indicates the "lemma" form of a lexical entry.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> Form</p>
<p><strong>Characteristics:</strong> Functional</p>
<p><strong>SubPropertyOf:</strong> lexicalForm</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>It is recommended to use the <code class="cm">rdfs:label</code> property to indicate the canonical form in addition to the property <a href="#canonicalForm" title="wikilink">canonicalForm</a> to ensure compatibility with RDFS-based systems that expect an RDFS label. The lexical entries for the noun <em>"cat"</em>, the verb <em>"marry"</em> and the adjective <em>"high"</em> would look as follows (in Turtle syntax):</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example5.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example5.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_cat a ontolex:LexicalEntry, ontolex:Word;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_cat;
rdfs:label "cat"@en .
:form_cat a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "cat"@en .
:lex_marry a ontolex:LexicalEntry, ontolex:Word;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_marry;
rdfs:label "marry"@en .
:form_marry a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "marry"@en .
:lex_high a ontolex:LexicalEntry, ontolex:Word;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_high;
rdfs:label "high"@en .
:form_high a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "high"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Of course, lexical entries need not to correspond to one word only, they can correspond to a multiword term, as the following example for the lexical entry "intangible assets" shows:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example6.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example6.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_intangible_assets a ontolex:LexicalEntry, ontolex:MultiwordExpression;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_intangible_assets;
rdfs:label "intangible assets"@en .
:form_intangible_assets a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "intangible assets"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Mulitword expressions are assumed to be distinct in both their full form and any abbreviated form as there may be distinct lexical and pragmatic properties associated with the two different forms of the term. Links using other vocabularies such as <a href="http://www.lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo">LexInfo</a> may be used to describe the type of abbreviation:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example6a.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example6a.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:nasa a ontolex:LexicalEntry, lexinfo:Acronym ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_nasa ;
lexinfo:abbreviationFor :national_aeronautics_and_space_administration;
rdfs:label "NASA"@en .
:form_nasa a ontolex:Form ;
ontolex:writtenRep "NASA"@en .
:national_aeronautics_and_space_administration a ontolex:LexicalEntry, ontolex:MultiwordExpression ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_national_aeronautics_and_space_administration ;
lexinfo:abbreviationFor :nasa ;
rdfs:label "National Aeronautics and Space Administration"@en .
:form_national_aeronautics_and_space_administration a ontolex:Form ;
ontolex:writtenRep "National Aeronautics and Space Administration"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>It is also possible to indicate non-canonical forms of lexical entries, which we call <a href="#otherForm" title="wikilink">other forms</a>:</p>
<div id="otherForm" class='entity'>
<h3>Other Form (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#otherForm" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#otherForm</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>other form</strong> property relates a lexical entry to a non-preferred ("non-lemma") form that realizes the given lexical entry.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> Form</p>
<p><strong>SubPropertyOf:</strong> lexicalForm</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>For example, we may specify non-canonical forms of the verb <em>(to) marry</em> as follows:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example7.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example7.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_marry a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_marry ;
ontolex:otherForm :form_marries .
:form_marry a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "marry"@en .
:form_marries a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "marries"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>The morphological class (i.e., declension, conjugation or similar) may be specified with the <a href="#morphologicalPattern" title="wikilink">morphological pattern</a> property to avoid having to list all regular forms of a word. The implementation of these patterns is not specified by this document (but should be provided by some suitable vocabulary such as <a href="http://lemon-model.net/liam">LIAM</a>).</p>
<div id="morphologicalPattern" class='entity'>
<h3>Morphological Pattern (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#morphologicalPattern" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#morphologicalPattern</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>morphological pattern</strong> property indicates the morphological class of a word.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain</strong>: LexicalEntry</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The following example shows how to indicate the conjugation for the Latin words <em>amare</em> and <em>videre</em>.</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example8.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example8.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:amare ontolex:morphologicalPattern :latin_first_conjugation ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :amare_form .
:amare_form ontolex:writtenRep "amare"@la .
:videre ontolex:morphologicalPattern :latin_second_conjugation ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :videre_form .
:videre_form ontolex:writtenRep "videre"@la</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="semantics">Semantics</h2>
<p>The model supports the specification of the meaning of <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">lexical entries</a> with respect to a given ontology. The lexicon model for ontologies follows the paradigm of <em>semantics by reference</em> in the sense that the meaning of a lexical entry is specified by pointing to the ontological concept that captures or represents its meaning.</p>
<p>The property <a href="#denotes" title="wikilink">denotes</a> is defined as follows:</p>
<div id="denotes" class='entity'>
<h3>Denotes (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#denotes" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#denotes</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>denotes</strong> property relates a lexical entry to a predicate in a given ontology that represents its meaning and has some denotational or model-theoretic semantics.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> rdfs:Resource</p>
<p><strong>SubPropertyOf:</strong> semiotics:denotes</p>
<p><strong>InverseOf:</strong> isDenotedBy</p>
<p><strong>PropertyChain:</strong> sense o reference</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>For the lexical entries <em>cat</em> and <em>marriage</em>, the meaning could be expressed by pointing to the corresponding DBpedia resources:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example9.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example9.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_cat a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_cat;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Cat>.
:form_cat a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "cat"@en.
:lex_marriage a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_marriage;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Marriage>.
:form_marriage a ontolex:Form;
ontolex:writtenRep "marriage"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>The following example shows how we can model the fact that a word is ambiguous with respect to the meanings it denotes, for example the word 'troll' can refer both to a mythical creature and to someone who makes inflammatory posts on the internet. These two meanings can be easily captured as shown in the following example:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example10.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example10.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:troll a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Troll> ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Internet_troll> .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Two terms may be different lexical entries if they are distinct in part-of-speech, gender, inflected forms or etymology. For example the following words with lemma 'bank' are all considered distinct:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example10a.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example10a.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:bank1_en a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
dct:language <http://id.loc.gov/vocabulary/iso639-2/eng>, <http://lexvo.org/id/iso639-1/en> ;
lexinfo:partOfSpeech lexinfo:noun ;
lexinfo:etymologicalRoot :banque_frm ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Bank> .
:bank2_en a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
dct:language <http://id.loc.gov/vocabulary/iso639-2/eng>, <http://lexvo.org/id/iso639-1/en> ;
lexinfo:partOfSpeech lexinfo:noun ;
lexinfo:etymologicalRoot :hobanca_ang ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Bank_(geographic)> .
:bank3_en a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
dct:language <http://id.loc.gov/vocabulary/iso639-2/eng>, <http://lexvo.org/id/iso639-1/en> ;
lexinfo:partOfSpeech lexinfo:verb ;
lexinfo:etymologicalRoot :hobanca_ang ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Banked_turn> .
:bank1_de a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
dct:language <http://id.loc.gov/vocabulary/iso639-2/de>, <http://lexvo.org/id/iso639-1/de> ;
lexinfo:partOfSpeech lexinfo:noun ;
lexinfo:gender lexinfo:feminine ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Bank> ;
ontolex:otherForm :banken .
:banken ontolex:writtenRep "Banken"@de ;
lexinfo:number lexinfo:plural .
:bank2_de a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
odct:language <http://id.loc.gov/vocabulary/iso639-2/de>, <http://lexvo.org/id/iso639-1/de> ;
lexinfo:partOfSpeech lexinfo:noun ;
lexinfo:gender lexinfo:feminine ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Bench_(furniture)> ;
ontolex:otherForm :baenke .
:baenke ontolex:writtenRep "Bänke"@de ;
lexinfo:number lexinfo:plural .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Note that the target of a denotation does not need to be an individual in the ontology but may also refer to a class, property or datatype property defined by the ontology. The model is agnostic with respect to the ontology language used to express the ontological meaning referred to. The assumption is merely that the entity in the range represents some predicate that has a denotational semantics in some formal logical system.</p>
<p>Properties in the model for linking to ontologies have an inverse property named as "is <em>x</em>-ed by", where <em>x</em> is the original property name to enable the lexicon to be defined in an ontology focused manner. In the case of denotes this property is isDenotedBy.</p>
<p>In some cases the meaning of a lexical entry is not explicit in the given ontology. Yet, to represent the meaning of a lexical entry we might want to create a new class at the interface between lexicon and ontology by reusing atomic ontological entities defined in the ontology in question. For example, we might want to express the meaning of an adjective by creating an anonymous restriction class at the level of the lexicon-ontology interface. This is illustrated below for the adjective "female" expressing the membership of an anonymous class ∃gender.{female}:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example10b.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example10b.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:female a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
lexinfo:partOfSpeech lexinfo:adjective;
ontolex:canonicalForm :female_canonical_form;
ontolex:sense :female_sense.
:female_canonical_form ontolex:writtenRep "female"@en.
:female_sense ontolex:reference [
a owl:Restriction;
owl:onProperty <http://dbpedia.org/ontology/gender> ;
owl:hasValue <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Female> ] ;
synsem:isA :female_arg .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="lexical-sense-reference">Lexical Sense & Reference</h2>
<p>For many practical modelling situations, the <a href="#denotes" title="wikilink">denotes</a> property is not sufficient to capture the precise linking between a <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">lexical entry</a> and its meaning with respect to a given ontology. Thus, lemon introduces an intermediate element called <a href="#LexicalSense" title="wikilink">lexical sense</a> to capture the particular sense of a word that refers to the particular ontology entity. The <a href="#LexicalEntry" title="wikilink">lexical entry</a> is linked to a <a href="#LexicalSense" title="wikilink">lexical sense</a> by means of the <a href="#sense" title="wikilink">sense</a> property and the <a href="#LexicalSense" title="wikilink">lexical sense</a> is linked to the ontology by means of the <a href="#reference" title="wikilink">reference</a> property. The chain <a href="#sense" title="wikilink">sense</a> ∘ <a href="#reference" title="wikilink">reference</a> is equivalent to the property <a href="#denotes" title="wikilink">denotes</a> introduced above.</p>
<div id="LexicalSense" class='entity'>
<h3>LexicalSense (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#LexicalSense" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#LexicalSense</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>lexical sense</strong> represents the lexical meaning of a lexical entry when interpreted as referring to the corresponding ontology element. A lexical sense thus represents a reification of a pair of a uniquely determined lexical entry and a uniquely determined ontology entity it refers to. A link between a lexical entry and an ontology entity via a Lexical Sense object implies that the lexical entry can be used to refer to the ontology entity in question.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf:</strong> reference exactly 1 rdfs:Resource; isSenseOf exactly 1 LexicalEntry, semiotics:Meaning</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>Via the lexical sense object we can attach additional properties to a pair of lexical entry and ontological predicate that it denotes to describe under which conditions (context, register, domain, etc.) it is valid to regard the lexical entry as having the ontological entity as meaning. For example, we may wish to express the usages of the word "consumption" in terms of the topic and diachronic usage of the word. As shown in the following example, we can use the Dublin Core property <em>subject</em> to indicate the topic of the Sense. The example also shows how to use the property <em>dating</em> defined in the LexInfo ontology to specify that the fourth sense of consumption is outdated.</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example11.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example11.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:lex_consumption a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex:canonicalForm :form_consumption;
ontolex:sense :consumption_sense1;
ontolex:sense :consumption_sense2;
ontolex:sense :consumption_sense3;
ontolex:sense :consumption_sense4 .
:form_consumption ontolex:writtenRep "consumption"@en.
:consumption_sense1 a ontolex:LexicalSense;
dct:subject <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Ecology> ;
ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Consumption_(ecology)> .
:consumption_sense2 a ontolex:LexicalSense;
dct:subject <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Anatomy> ;
ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Ingestion> .
:consumption_sense3 a ontolex:LexicalSense;
dct:subject <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Economics> ;
ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Consumption_(economics)> .
:consumption_sense4 a ontolex:LexicalSense;
dct:subject <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Medicine> ;
lexinfo:dating lexinfo:old ;
ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Tuberculosis> .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>The lexical sense has a single lexical entry and a single reference in the ontology. As a consequence, the properties "sense" and "reference" are defined as inverse functional and functional, respectively.</p>
<div id="sense" class='entity'>
<h3>Sense (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#sense" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#sense</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>sense</strong> property relates a lexical entry to one of its lexical senses.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalEntry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> LexicalSense</p>
<p><strong>InverseOf:</strong> isSenseOf</p>
<p><strong>Characteristics:</strong> Inverse Functional</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="reference" class='entity'>
<h3>Reference (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#reference" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#reference</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>reference</strong> property relates a lexical sense to an ontological predicate that represents the denotation of the corresponding lexical entry.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalSense or synsem:OntoMap</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> rdfs:Resource</p>
<p><strong>InverseOf:</strong> isReferenceOf</p>
<p><strong>Characteristics:</strong> Functional</p>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="usage">Usage</h2>
<p>The interpretation of a word (lexical entry) with respect to a meaning defined in a given ontology is often modulated by usage conditions or pragmatic implications in particular due to <em>register</em>, <em>connotations</em> or <em>meaning nuances</em> of a word. For example, consider as an example the French words 'rivière' and 'fleuve', which refer to rivers flowing into a sea and flowing into other rivers, respectively. As corresponding ontological classes to capture the specific meanings of these French words might not be available in the ontology, these meaning nuances can be specified using the property <a href="#usage" title="wikilink">usage</a>, which allows information to be captured related to usage conditions and pragmatic implications under which the lexical entry can be used to refer to the ontological meaning in question. These usage conditions are not introduced <em>instead of</em> a formally defined sense but complement the corresponding sense by additional information describing the usage of the lexical entry.</p>
<p>How exactly constraints on the usage of senses are defined is not specified by <i>lemon</i>. Yet, we give an example below that shows how to model the lexical meaning of 'rivière' and 'fleuve' when used to refer to the DBpedia class <a href="http://dbpedia.org/ontology/River">River</a>:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example12.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example12.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:riviere a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:sense :riviere_sense .
:fleuve a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:sense :fleuve_sense .
:riviere_sense ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/ontology/River> ;
ontolex:usage [
rdf:value "A riviere is a river that flows into another river"@en
] .
:fleuve_sense ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/ontology/River>;
ontolex:usage [
rdf:value "A fleuve is a river that flows into the sea"@en
] .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div id="usage_prop" class='entity'>
<h3>Usage (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#usage" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#usage</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>usage</strong> property indicates usage conditions or pragmatic implications when using the lexical entry to refer to the given ontological meaning.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> LexicalSense</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> rdfs:Resource</p>
</div>
</div>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="lexical-concept">Lexical Concept</h2>
<p>We have seen above how to capture the fact that a certain lexical entry can be used to denote a certain ontological predicate. We capture this by saying that the lexical entry <a href="#denotes" title="wikilink">denotes</a> the class or ontology element in question. However, sometimes we would like to express the fact that a certain lexical entry <a href="#evokes" title="wikilink">evokes</a> a certain mental concept rather than that it refers to a class with a formal interpretation in some model. Thus, in lemon we introduce the class <a href="#LexicalConcept" title="wikilink">Lexical Concept</a> that represents <em>a mental abstraction, concept or unit of thought that can be lexicalized by a given collection of senses</em>. A <a href="#LexicalConcept" title="wikilink">lexical concept</a> is thus a subclass of <a href="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#Concept">skos:Concept</a>.</p>
<div id="LexicalConcept" class='entity'>
<h3>Lexical Concept (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#LexicalConcept" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#LexicalConcept</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>lexical concept</strong> represents a mental abstraction, concept or unit of thought that can be lexicalized by a given collection of senses.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf:</strong> skos:Concept</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The lexical entry is said to <a href="#evokes" title="wikilink">evoke</a> a particular lexical concept, similar to how a lexical entry <a href="#denotes" title="wikilink">denotes</a> an ontology reference.</p>
<div id="evokes" class='entity'>
<h3>Evokes (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#evokes" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#evokes</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>evokes</strong> property relates a lexical entry to one of the lexical concepts it evokes, i.e. the mental concept that speakers of a language might associate when hearing the lexical entry.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> Lexical Entry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> Lexical Concept</p>
<p><strong>InverseOf:</strong> isEvokedBy</p>
<p><strong>Property Chain:</strong> sense o isLexicalizedSenseOf</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The evoked concept is different from the reference in the ontology, as the reference primarily gives an interpretation of a word in terms of the identifiers that would be generated by the semantic parsing of the sentence. For example if we were to understand the sentence <em>John F. Kennedy died in 1963</em>. we may understand the verb "die (in)" as generating the URI <a href="http://dbpedia.org/ontology/deathDate">deathDate</a> within a SPARQL query. However, we might also want to record the actual lexical sense of the word with respect to a mental lexicon, in which <em>die</em> evokes the event of dying, as modelled in the following example:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example13.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example13.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:die a ontolex:Word ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/ontology/deathDate> ;
ontolex:evokes :Dying .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>We can link a lexical concept to a lexical sense that lexicalizes the concept via the property <a href="#lexicalizedSense" title="wikilink">lexicalized sense</a>:</p>
<div id="lexicalizedSense" class='entity'>
<h3>Lexicalized Sense (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#lexicalizedSense" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#lexicalizedSense</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>lexicalized sense</strong> property relates a lexical concept to a corresponding lexical sense that lexicalizes the concept.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> Lexical Concept</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> Lexical Sense</p>
<p><strong>InverseOf:</strong> isLexicalizedSenseOf</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>A simple example involving the use of a lexical concept is the following:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example14.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example14.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:temporary_change_of_possession a ontolex:LexicalConcept;
ontolex:lexicalizedSense :borrow_sense;
ontolex:lexicalizedSense :lend_sense;
ontolex:isEvokedBy :borrow_le;
ontolex:isEvokedBy :lend_le.
:borrow_le a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex:sense :borrow_sense;
ontolex:evokes :temporary_change_of_possession.
:lend_le a ontolex:LexicalEntry;
ontolex_sense :lend_sense;
ontolex:evokes :temporary_change_of_possession.</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Similarly, we can link a lexical concept to a reference in the ontology by means of the <a href="#concept" title="wikilink">concept</a> property:</p>
<div id="concept" class='entity'>
<h3>Concept (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#concept" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#concept</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>concept</strong> property relates an ontological entity to a lexical concept that represents the corresponding meaning.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> owl:Thing</p>
<p><strong>Range</strong>: Lexical Concept</p>
<p><strong>InverseOf</strong>: isConceptOf</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The combined usage of the properties denotes, sense, evokes, concept and lexicalized sense is demonstrated in the example below for the case of a lexical resource such as Princeton WordNet. Roughly, the synsets in a wordnet correspond to a lexical concept in lemon. The modelling would thus look as follows:</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example15.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example15.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:cat_lex a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :cat_form ;
ontolex:sense :cat_sense ;
ontolex:denotes <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Cat> ;
ontolex:evokes pwn:102124272-n .
:cat_form ontolex:writtenRep "cat"@en .
:cat_sense a ontolex:LexicalSense ;
ontolex:reference <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Cat> ;
ontolex:isLexicalizedSenseOf pwn:102124272-n ;
ontolex:isSenseOf :cat_lex .
<http://dbpedia.org/resource/Cat>
ontolex:concept pwn:102124272-n ;
ontolex:isReferenceOf :cat_sense ;
ontolex:isDenotedBy :cat_lex .
pwn:102124272-n a ontolex:LexicalConcept;
ontolex:isEvokedBy :cat_lex ;
ontolex:lexicalizedSense :cat_sense ;
ontolex:isConceptOf <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Cat> .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>A definition can be added to a <a href="#LexicalConcept" title="wikilink">lexical concept</a> as a <em>gloss</em> by using the <a href="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#definition">skos:definition</a> property.</p>
<p>In addition to organizing a lexicon by lexical entries, we may alternatively create a lexicon of concepts, by means of the the <a href="#ConceptSet" title="wikilink">concept set</a> class, defined as follows:</p>
<div id="ConceptSet" class='entity'>
<h3>Concept Set (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#ConceptSet" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/ontolex#ConceptSet</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>concept set</strong> represents a collection of lexical concepts.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>SubClassOf</strong>: skos:ConceptScheme, void:Dataset</p>
<p><strong>EquivalentClass</strong>: skos:inScheme min 1 LexicalConcept</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>In this way lexicons can be ordered onomasiologically, that is by meanings rather than by lemmas. The concept set is a special type of <a href="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#ConceptScheme">skos:ConceptScheme</a>. A <a href="#LexicalConcept" title="wikilink">lexical concept</a> is linked to a ConceptSet using the property <a href="http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#inScheme">skos:inScheme</a></p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/ontolex/example17.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/ontolex/example17.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:conceptLexicon a ontolex:ConceptSet .
:consumption1 a ontolex:LexicalConcept ;
ontolex:isConceptOf <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Tuberculosis> ;
skos:definition "Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB (short for tubercle bacillus), in the past also called phthisis, phthisis pulmonalis, or consumption, is a widespread, and in many cases fatal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis typically attacks the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. It is spread through the air when people who have an active TB infection cough, sneeze, or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air."@en;
ontolex:isEvokedBy :consumption ;
skos:inScheme :conceptLexicon .
:consumption2 a ontolex:LexicalConcept ;
ontolex:isConceptOf <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Consumption_(Economics)> ;
skos:definition "Consumption is a major concept in economics and is also studied by many other social sciences. Economists are particularly interested in the relationship between consumption and income, and therefore in economics the consumption function plays a major role.";
ontolex:isEvokedBy :consumption ;
skos:inScheme :conceptLexicon .
:tuberculosis1 a ontolex:LexicalConcept ;
ontolex:isConceptOf <http://dbpedia.org/resource/Tuberculosis> ;
skos:definition "Tuberculosis, MTB, or TB (short for tubercle bacillus), in the past also called phthisis, phthisis pulmonalis, or consumption, is a widespread, and in many cases fatal, infectious disease caused by various strains of mycobacteria, usually Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis typically attacks the lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. It is spread through the air when people who have an active TB infection cough, sneeze, or otherwise transmit respiratory fluids through the air."@en;
ontolex:isEvokedBy :tuberculosis ;
skos:inScheme :conceptLexicon .
:consumption a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :consumption_lemma .
:consumption_lemma ontolex:writtenRep "consumption"@en .
:tuberculosis a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :tuberculosis_lemma .
:tuberculosis_lemma ontolex:writtenRep "tuberculosis"@en .</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</section>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="syntax-and-semantics-synsem">Syntax and Semantics (synsem)</h2>
<figure>
<img src="Lemon_Syntax_and_Semantics.png" title="Lemon_Syntax_and_Semantics.png" alt="Lemon_Syntax_and_Semantics.png" ><figcaption>Lemon_Syntax_and_Semantics.png</figcaption>
</figure>
<section>
<h2 id="syntactic-frames">Syntactic Frames</h2>
<p>Most words in a language do not stand by their own, but have a certain syntactic behavior in the sense that they appear in certain syntactic structures and require a number of syntactic arguments to be complete. Examples of this are i) transitive verbs (e.g. to own), which require a syntactic subject and a syntactic object, ii) relational nouns (e.g. capital (of), mother (of), son (of), brother (of), etc.), which require a prepositional object, or iii) adjectives, which require a noun to modify, etc. The syntactic behavior of a lexical entry is defined in lemon by a syntactic frame:</p>
<div id="SyntacticFrame" class='entity'>
<h3>Syntactic Frame (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#SyntacticFrame" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#SyntacticFrame</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>syntactic frame</strong> represents the syntactic behavior of an open class word in terms of the (syntactic) arguments it requires. It essentially describes the so called subcategorization structure of the word in question, in particular the syntactic arguments it requires.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
</div>
</div>
<p>In order to relate a lexical entry to one of its various syntactic behaviors as captured by a syntactic frame, the <code class="cm">synsem</code> module defines the <a href="#synBehavior" title="wikilink">syntactic behavior</a> property. Each lexical entry should have its own syntactic frame instance, generic behavior such as 'transitive' should be captured by classes.</p>
<div id="synBehavior" class='entity'>
<h3>Syntactic Behavior (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#synBehavior" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#synBehavior</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>syntactic behavior</strong> property relates a lexical entry to one of its syntactic behaviors as captured by a syntactic frame.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> ontolex:LexicalEntry</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> SyntacticFrame</p>
<p><strong>Characteristics:</strong> InverseFunctional</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The following example shows how to indicate that the verb <em>(to) own</em> can be used as a transitive verb. This is accomplished by adding a frame <em>own_frame_transitive</em> that is declared as a transitive frame, using the class <a href="http://lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo.owl#TransitiveFrame">TransitiveFrame</a> defined in the <a href="http://lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo.owl">LexInfo Ontology</a>.</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/synsem/example1.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/synsem/example1.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:own_lex a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :own_form ;
synsem:synBehavior :own_frame_transitive .
:own_frame_transitive a synsem:SyntacticFrame, lexinfo:TransitiveFrame.
:own_form ontolex:writtenRep "own"@en . </code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Arguments of a syntactic frame are represented by the class <a href="#SyntacticArgument" title="wikilink">Syntactic Argument</a>:</p>
<div id="SyntacticArgument" class='entity'>
<h3>Syntactic Argument (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#SyntacticArgument" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#SyntacticArgument</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>A <strong>syntactic argument</strong> represents a slot that needs to be filled for a certain syntactic frame to be complete. Syntactic arguments typically realize a certain grammatical function (e.g. subject, direct object, indirect object, prepositional object, etc.).</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
</div>
</div>
<p>The object property <a href="#synArg" title="wikilink">synArg</a> is used to relate a (syntactic) frame to one of its syntactic arguments.</p>
<div id="synArg" class='entity'>
<h3>SynArg (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#synArg" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#synArg</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The object property <strong>synArg</strong> relates a syntactic frame to one of its syntactic arguments.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> SyntacticFrame</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> SyntacticArgument</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The following example shows how to extend the example for the verb <em>(to) own</em> by specifically indicating the arguments, in this case via two specific sub-properties of <a href="#synArg">synArg</a>, i.e. <a href="http://lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo.owl#subject">lexinfo:subject</a> or <a href="http://lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo.owl#object">lexinfo:directObject</a> defined in the external <a href="http://lexinfo.net/ontology/2.0/lexinfo.owl">LexInfo ontology</a>.</p>
<div class='beispiel'>
<p><a href='Examples/synsem/example2.png' class='tn'><img alt='no desc' src='Examples/synsem/example2.png'></a></p>
<div>
<pre><code class="cm">:own_lex a ontolex:LexicalEntry ;
ontolex:canonicalForm :own_form ;
synsem:synBehavior :own_frame_transitive .
:own_form ontolex:writtenRep "own"@en.
:own_frame_transitive a lexinfo:TransitiveFrame;
lexinfo:subject :own_frame_subj;
lexinfo:directObject :own_frame_obj.</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<p>Note that if an external ontology is used to describe the type of arguments in more detail, e.g. indicating the grammatical function as in the example above, the external property used needs to be a sub-property of <a href="#synArg">synArg</a>.</p>
</section>
<section>
<h2 id="ontology-mappings">Ontology Mappings</h2>
<p>At the lexicon-ontology interface, syntactic frames need to be mapped or bound to ontological structures that represent their meaning. In the same way that a lexical sense binds a lexical entry to an ontology entity, the <a href="#OntoMap">OntoMap</a> maps a syntactic frame onto an ontology entity.</p>
<div id="OntoMap" class='entity'>
<h3>OntoMap (Class)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#OntoMap" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#OntoMap</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>An <strong>ontology mapping</strong> (OntoMap for short) specifies how a syntactic frame and its syntactic arguments map to a set of concepts and properties in the ontology that together specify the meaning of the syntactic frame.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
</div>
</div>
<p>In order to link an <a href="#OntoMap" title="wikilink">ontology map</a> to a corresponding sense, the model foresees the property <a href="#ontoMapping" title="wikilink">ontoMapping</a>, which is defined as functional and inverse functional, that is in exact 1:1 relationship with a lexical sense. As such, it is recommended that in the case that a lexicon requires both the <a href="#OntoMap" title="wikilink">ontology map</a> and the <a href="#LexicalSense" title="wikilink">lexical sense</a>, then these two entities are defined using the same URI as there is no technical reason to distinguish them and they have very similar functions.</p>
<div id="ontoMapping" class='entity'>
<h3>ontoMapping (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#ontoMapping" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#ontoMapping</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>ontoMapping</strong> property relates an ontology mapping to its corresponding lexical sense.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> OntoMap</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> LexicalSense</p>
<p><strong>Characteristics:</strong> Functional, InverseFunctional</p>
</div>
</div>
<p>The <code class="cm">synsem</code> module introduces the property <a href="#ontoCorrespondence" title="wikilink">ontoCorrespondence</a> to establish a mapping between an argument of a predicate defined in the ontology and the syntactic argument that realizes this predicate argument in a given syntactic frame:</p>
<div id="ontoCorrespondence" class='entity'>
<h3>ontoCorrespondence (Object Property)</h3>
<div>
<p><strong>URI:</strong> <a href="http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#ontoCorrespondence" class="uri">http://www.w3.org/ns/lemon/synsem#ontoCorrespondence</a></p>
</div>
<div class='comment'>
<p>The <strong>ontoCorrespondence</strong> property binds an argument of a predicate defined in the ontology to a syntactic argument that realizes this predicate argument syntactically.</p>
</div>
<div class='description'>
<p><strong>Domain:</strong> OntoMap or LexicalSense</p>
<p><strong>Range:</strong> SyntacticArgument</p>
</div>