diff --git a/src/glua.gleam b/src/glua.gleam
index c475e1a..b9608b3 100644
--- a/src/glua.gleam
+++ b/src/glua.gleam
@@ -7,6 +7,7 @@ import gleam/dynamic/decode
 import gleam/int
 import gleam/list
 import gleam/option
+import gleam/pair
 import gleam/result
 import gleam/string
 
@@ -247,8 +248,12 @@ pub fn int(v: Int) -> Value
 @external(erlang, "glua_ffi", "coerce")
 pub fn float(v: Float) -> Value
 
-@external(erlang, "glua_ffi", "coerce")
-pub fn table(values: List(#(Value, Value))) -> Value
+pub fn table(lua: Lua, values: List(#(Value, Value))) -> #(Lua, Value) {
+  do_table(values, lua) |> pair.swap
+}
+
+@external(erlang, "luerl_heap", "alloc_table")
+fn do_table(values: List(#(Value, Value)), lua: Lua) -> #(Value, Lua)
 
 pub fn table_decoder(
   keys_decoder: decode.Decoder(a),
@@ -266,8 +271,7 @@ pub fn table_decoder(
 pub fn function(
   f: fn(Lua, List(dynamic.Dynamic)) -> #(Lua, List(Value)),
 ) -> Value {
-  // we need a little wrapper for functions to satisfy luerl's order of arguments and return value type
-  wrap_function(f)
+  do_function(f)
 }
 
 pub fn list(encoder: fn(a) -> Value, values: List(a)) -> List(Value) {
@@ -292,10 +296,11 @@ pub fn list(encoder: fn(a) -> Value, values: List(a)) -> List(Value) {
 /// }
 ///
 /// let state = glua.new()
+/// let #(state, userdata) = glua.userdata(state, User(name: "Jhon Doe", is_admin: False))
 /// let assert Ok(state) = glua.set(
 ///   state:,
 ///   keys: ["a_user"],
-///   value: glua.userdata(User(name: "Jhon Doe", is_admin: False))
+///   value: userdata
 /// )
 ///
 /// let assert Ok(#(_, [result])) = glua.eval(state:, code: "return a_user", using: user_decoder)
@@ -308,20 +313,25 @@ pub fn list(encoder: fn(a) -> Value, values: List(a)) -> List(Value) {
 /// }
 ///
 /// let state = glua.new()
+/// let #(state, userdata) = glua.userdata(state, Person(name: "Lucy", email: "lucy@example.com"))
 /// let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(
 ///   state:,
 ///   keys: ["lucy"],
-///   value: glua.userdata(Person(name: "Lucy", email: "lucy@example.com"))
+///   value: userdata
 /// )
 ///
 /// let assert Error(glua.LuaRuntimeException(glua.IllegalIndex(_), _)) =
 ///   glua.eval(state:, code: "return lucy.email", using: decode.string)
 /// ```
-@external(erlang, "glua_ffi", "coerce_userdata")
-pub fn userdata(v: anything) -> Value
+pub fn userdata(lua: Lua, v: anything) -> #(Lua, Value) {
+  do_userdata(v, lua) |> pair.swap
+}
+
+@external(erlang, "luerl_heap", "alloc_userdata")
+fn do_userdata(v: anything, lua: Lua) -> #(Value, Lua)
 
 @external(erlang, "glua_ffi", "wrap_fun")
-fn wrap_function(
+fn do_function(
   fun: fn(Lua, List(dynamic.Dynamic)) -> #(Lua, List(Value)),
 ) -> Value
 
@@ -511,7 +521,7 @@ pub fn set(
       Ok(_) -> Ok(#(keys, lua))
 
       Error(KeyNotFound(_)) -> {
-        let #(tbl, lua) = alloc_table([], lua)
+        let #(tbl, lua) = do_table([], lua)
         do_set(lua, keys, tbl)
         |> result.map(fn(lua) { #(keys, lua) })
       }
@@ -578,9 +588,6 @@ pub fn set_lua_paths(
   set(lua, ["package", "path"], paths)
 }
 
-@external(erlang, "luerl_emul", "alloc_table")
-fn alloc_table(content: List(a), lua: Lua) -> #(a, Lua)
-
 @external(erlang, "glua_ffi", "get_table_keys_dec")
 fn do_get(lua: Lua, keys: List(String)) -> Result(dynamic.Dynamic, LuaError)
 
diff --git a/src/glua_ffi.erl b/src/glua_ffi.erl
index 497a1b9..7ef48f4 100644
--- a/src/glua_ffi.erl
+++ b/src/glua_ffi.erl
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 -module(glua_ffi).
 -import(luerl_lib, [lua_error/2]).
 
--export([get_stacktrace/1, coerce/1, coerce_nil/0, coerce_userdata/1, wrap_fun/1, sandbox_fun/1, get_table_keys/2, get_table_keys_dec/2,
+-export([get_stacktrace/1, coerce/1, coerce_nil/0, wrap_fun/1, sandbox_fun/1, get_table_keys/2, get_table_keys_dec/2,
          get_private/2, set_table_keys/3, load/2, load_file/2, eval/2, eval_dec/2, eval_file/2,
          eval_file_dec/2, eval_chunk/2, eval_chunk_dec/2, call_function/3, call_function_dec/3]).
 
@@ -30,33 +30,6 @@ to_gleam(Value) ->
             {error, {unknown_error, nil}}
     end.
 
-%% helper to determine if a value is encoded or not
-%% borrowed from https://github.com/tv-labs/lua/blob/main/lib/lua/util.ex#L19-L35
-is_encoded(nil) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded(true) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded(false) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded(Binary) when is_binary(Binary) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded(N) when is_number(N) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded({tref,_}) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded({usrdef,_}) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded({eref,_}) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded({funref,_,_}) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded({erl_func,_}) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded({erl_mfa,_,_,_}) ->
-    true;
-is_encoded(_) ->
-    false.
-
 map_error({error, Errors, _}) ->
     {lua_compile_failure, lists:map(fun map_compile_error/1, Errors)};
 map_error({lua_error, {illegal_index, Value, Index}, State}) ->
@@ -190,18 +163,17 @@ coerce(X) ->
 coerce_nil() ->
     nil.
 
-coerce_userdata(X) ->
-    {userdata, X}.
-
 wrap_fun(Fun) ->
-    fun(Args, State) ->
+    {erl_func, fun(Args, State) ->
             Decoded = luerl:decode_list(Args, State),
             {NewState, Ret} = Fun(State, Decoded),
-            luerl:encode_list(Ret, NewState)
-    end.
+            {Ret, NewState}
+    end}.
 
 sandbox_fun(Msg) ->
-    fun(_, State) -> {error, map_error(lua_error({error_call, [Msg]}, State))} end.
+    {erl_func, fun(_, State) ->
+        {error, map_error(lua_error({error_call, [Msg]}, State))}
+    end}.
 
 get_table_keys(Lua, Keys) ->
     case luerl:get_table_keys(Keys, Lua) of
@@ -224,11 +196,7 @@ get_table_keys_dec(Lua, Keys) ->
     end.
 
 set_table_keys(Lua, Keys, Value) ->
-    SetFun = case is_encoded(Value) of
-                 true -> fun luerl:set_table_keys/3;
-                 false -> fun luerl:set_table_keys_dec/3
-             end,
-    to_gleam(SetFun(Keys, Value, Lua)).
+    to_gleam(luerl:set_table_keys(Keys, Value, Lua)).
 
 load(Lua, Code) ->
     to_gleam(luerl:load(
@@ -264,12 +232,10 @@ eval_file_dec(Lua, Path) ->
                  unicode:characters_to_list(Path), Lua)).
 
 call_function(Lua, Fun, Args) ->
-    {EncodedArgs, State} = luerl:encode_list(Args, Lua),
-    to_gleam(luerl:call(Fun, EncodedArgs, State)).
+    to_gleam(luerl:call(Fun, Args, Lua)).
 
 call_function_dec(Lua, Fun, Args) ->
-    {EncodedArgs, St1} = luerl:encode_list(Args, Lua),
-    case luerl:call(Fun, EncodedArgs, St1) of
+    case luerl:call(Fun, Args, Lua) of
         {ok, Ret, St2} ->
             Values = luerl:decode_list(Ret, St2),
             {ok, {St2, Values}};
diff --git a/test/glua_test.gleam b/test/glua_test.gleam
index a7cce4e..b3dfeb8 100644
--- a/test/glua_test.gleam
+++ b/test/glua_test.gleam
@@ -21,11 +21,13 @@ pub fn get_table_test() {
   ]
   let cool_numbers =
     glua.function(fn(lua, _params) {
-      let table =
+      let #(lua, table) =
         glua.table(
+          lua,
           my_table
-          |> list.map(fn(pair) { #(glua.string(pair.0), glua.int(pair.1)) }),
+            |> list.map(fn(pair) { #(glua.string(pair.0), glua.int(pair.1)) }),
         )
+
       #(lua, [table])
     })
 
@@ -119,17 +121,11 @@ pub fn new_sandboxed_test() {
 }
 
 pub fn encoding_and_decoding_nested_tables_test() {
-  let nested_table = [
-    #(
-      glua.string("key"),
-      glua.table([
-        #(
-          glua.int(1),
-          glua.table([#(glua.string("deeper_key"), glua.string("deeper_value"))]),
-        ),
-      ]),
-    ),
-  ]
+  let lua = glua.new()
+  let #(lua, tb1) =
+    glua.table(lua, [#(glua.string("deeper_key"), glua.string("deeper_value"))])
+  let #(lua, tb2) = glua.table(lua, [#(glua.int(1), tb1)])
+  let #(lua, tb3) = glua.table(lua, [#(glua.string("key"), tb2)])
 
   let keys = ["my_nested_table"]
 
@@ -141,9 +137,8 @@ pub fn encoding_and_decoding_nested_tables_test() {
         glua.table_decoder(decode.string, decode.string),
       ),
     )
-  let tbl = glua.table(nested_table)
 
-  let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(state: glua.new(), keys:, value: tbl)
+  let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(state: lua, keys:, value: tb3)
 
   let assert Ok(result) =
     glua.get(state: lua, keys:, using: nested_table_decoder)
@@ -157,22 +152,21 @@ pub type Userdata {
 
 pub fn userdata_test() {
   let lua = glua.new()
-  let userdata = Userdata("my-userdata", 1)
+  let #(lua, userdata) = glua.userdata(lua, Userdata("my-userdata", 1))
   let userdata_decoder = {
     use foo <- decode.field(1, decode.string)
     use bar <- decode.field(2, decode.int)
     decode.success(Userdata(foo:, bar:))
   }
 
-  let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(lua, ["my_userdata"], glua.userdata(userdata))
+  let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(lua, ["my_userdata"], userdata)
   let assert Ok(#(lua, [result])) =
     glua.eval(lua, "return my_userdata", userdata_decoder)
 
-  assert result == userdata
+  assert result == Userdata("my-userdata", 1)
 
-  let userdata = Userdata("other_userdata", 2)
-  let assert Ok(lua) =
-    glua.set(lua, ["my_other_userdata"], glua.userdata(userdata))
+  let #(lua, userdata) = glua.userdata(lua, Userdata("other-userdata", 2))
+  let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(lua, ["my_other_userdata"], userdata)
   let assert Error(glua.LuaRuntimeException(glua.IllegalIndex(index, _), _)) =
     glua.eval(lua, "return my_other_userdata.foo", decode.string)
 
@@ -236,8 +230,9 @@ pub fn set_test() {
 
   let keys = ["math", "squares"]
 
-  let encoded =
+  let #(lua, encoded) =
     glua.table(
+      lua,
       numbers |> list.map(fn(pair) { #(glua.int(pair.0), glua.int(pair.1)) }),
     )
   let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(lua, keys, encoded)
@@ -260,8 +255,9 @@ pub fn set_test() {
   let encoded = glua.function(count_odd)
   let assert Ok(lua) = glua.set(glua.new(), ["count_odd"], encoded)
 
-  let arg =
+  let #(lua, arg) =
     glua.table(
+      lua,
       list.index_map(list.range(1, 10), fn(i, n) {
         #(glua.int(i + 1), glua.int(n))
       }),
@@ -277,8 +273,8 @@ pub fn set_test() {
 
   assert result == 5
 
-  let tbl =
-    glua.table([
+  let #(lua, tbl) =
+    glua.table(lua, [
       #(
         glua.string("is_even"),
         glua.function(fn(lua, args) {